Unit 6: Andragogy

Overview

Just as pedagogy seeks to explain how children learn, andragogy aims to demonstrate how adults learn (Pappas, 2013).

Malcolm Knowles identified five assumptions that set adult learners apart from children:

Adult learners are more self-directed and require autonomy and control because their sense of self-concept is more developed as they mature.
Adult learners are more intrinsically motivated.
Adults bring a lifetime of experience that shapes knowledge transfer and serves as a resource for learning.
Adult learners seek real-world relevance linked to their developmental tasks in their professional and social roles.
Adults' learning orientation is problem-centered and focused on immediate application, rather than on memorization and recall.

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(Pappas,213; the Super Six Principles, n.d.; Thompson, 2017)

Key Contributors

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Implications On Insturctional (Learning) Design

Some considerations for instructional designers include:

Build a flexible and practical course structure that fits into an adult learner's busy schedule
Tie to real-world problems into the learning scenarios and material must relate to the learners lives or jobs
Build on the learners' previous experience, not repeat it, and adapt to the myriads of learners
Create a self-paced environment
Capitalize on adult learners' emphasis on intrinsic motivation
Identify ways to link new knowledge to the learners pre-existing knowledge
Give the learners as much control over their learning experience as possible
Design must be multifaceted for different types of learners
Provide the "why" behind change and anticipate resistance to new methods
Anticipate high expectations from learners
Integrate emotionally-driven content to build an emotional connection between the material and the learner
Utilize storytelling as a method to make material interesting
Allow time for learners to process the information
Self-directed learner does not equate to isolation; incorporate chats to promote interaction
Break up information for incremental learning to avoid cognitive overload
Be aware of the learner experiencing insecurity when interacting with peers
Anticipate personality clashes between learners

(Cobb, 2025; Pappas, 2013; Pappas, 2021; Pappas 2025; Roeueche, 2007; Trest, 2023)

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Strengths and Limitations: Military (Marine Corps)

Strengths
More Marines are seeking higher
education, which means they
familiar with various methods
based on Andragogy from their experience with civilian schools.

Building a learning environment structured around Marines' chaotic schedules, including work, training, and deployments, is a highly valuable system for Marines and their families.

Allowing Marine learners autonomy and control over their education can help build maturity and skills in decision-making, prioritization, and time management.

Challenges
Culturally, education within the
Marine Corps can be a force-
function or tied to extrinsic rewards,
such as promotions, which go
against the assumption that adult
learners are intrinsically motivated.

Like many organizations, the Marine Corps has a rigid structure and some learners may not be provided the autonomy and control they need.

Adapting instructional design to the multitude of cultural and subcultural factors for a diverse group, as found in the Marine Corps, and pose a challenge.

Marines may experience intimidation when interacting with peers and especially with other students of higher rank.

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Part II: Prior Learning Experience

Over the span of my career, I've had ample opportunities to engage in the three types of learning, as described by Johnsonv& Majewska (2022), to include:

Highly structured formal learning (i.e., my degrees from Park University)
Organized but less structured and more flexible non-formal learning (i.e., Massive Open Online Courses offered by Coursera)
Unstructured and spontaneous informal learning (i.e., discussion forums like Jacob_PPT or watching videos posted on Instagram like Reddit)

One of the most memorable formal learning experiences was attending a three-month course at the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute. The course was a mix of reviewing written lessons, formal and informal lecture method in an auditorium setting, and small group development. The reading and lectures followed a traditional approach to learning, with the intent to remember and understand key information, the small group development was the most impactful. During the small group portions, learners would engage in an activity that force social interaction, critical thinking, and relying on previous experiences and knowledge. Once the activity was complete, the group would meet in a small circle, where they were close proximity of one another to "unpack" the learning experience, tie-in information from the readings and lectures, and self-reflect. Essentially it would look like this:

Learners go through an experience (activities like "The Drawbridge " or others that dealt with unconscious bias, privilege, and power, and various "-isms" like sexism and racism)
Learners reconvene in a small circle, guided by facilitators, to "unpack" the experience, starting with identifying, in one word, how the learner felt during the activity.
Learners would then ask clarifying and probing questions to each other as to what made them feel that way, engaging other learners from various backgrounds

Facilitators would only pose questions when necessary or help learners correct their language.
Learners would reflect on what they learned about themselves during the activity.
Learners would conclude by connecting the activity to course material and lectures, and by making real-world connections to develop actionable plans.

Even though this experience was emotionally draining at times, it was one of the most impactful courses I've participated in throughout my career. Some of the highlights
to the course:

It tied real-world application and problem-solving to both the "job" of an Equal Opportunity Advisor and personal development.
It built on learners' prior experiences while also challenging their schemas.
It incorporated a diverse group to learn from, ensuring each small group had a balanced mix of branches of service, genders, races, religions, and other demographic factors.
It explained why the institute was using that type of approach to learning.

Some of the drawbacks:

It was not truly flexible for various types of learners and was not self-paced
Due to the nature of the topics, this approach would not be as beneficial in a virtual setting
It was relatively rigid in assigning research topics and the structure of the course
information
Due to the amount of content, it did not allow much time for the learners to process the

When it comes to my preference between formal, non-formal, and informal approaches to learning, my answer is...."Yes."
It depends on the topic, complexity, the reason for my engagement, and time constraints. For example, instructional design is something I'm interested in as a potential career, but it is very complex, so I see the formal approach as the best option. When I'm trying to design a PowerPoint or create formulas in Excel, I defer to online tutorials or contacting a subject matter expert as these tasks are specific, don't require me to commit to long-term memory, and are usually time-sensitive, the informal approach works best. When there is a topic that can tie-in to my formal education and/or is supplemental to my education, the non-formal approach, such as workshops or conferences are beneficial.

This diverse approach to learning requires me to have a very diverse Personal Learning Network and also apply critical thinking to identify possible resources and organize them to meet my informal, non-formal, and formal learning needs. Organizing my network by needs also gives me an idea of how I can best contribute; i.e. just as I might be looking for a "Yes/No" response to time-sensitive question, other learners might have the same need and might experience cognitive overload from a more-lengthy response.

Over time, learners took more control of the small group, relying less on the facilitators
It addressed conflict in a constructive way
It provided an avenue for applying the course materials and lecture content.
It integrated emotionally driven content to connect learners with the subjects.

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Artificial Intelligence Disclosure
I used Grammarly as a thought partner to assist with organization, spellchecking, and editing for clarity. All final ideas, content, and analysis are my own. I used Gemini to generate graphics throughout my website.

Prev: Unit 5: Connectivism

Next...Unit 7: Assessment

Click Here for References and Resources

Aanstoos, C. M. (2024). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | Www.ebsco.com. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/psychology/maslows-hierarchy-needs

Brockett, R. G., & Donaghy, R. C. (2005). Beyond The Inquiring Mind: Cyril Houle’s Connection to Self-Directed Learning. New Prairie Press (Kansas State University).

Capes, K. (2024). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Education | Brooks and Kirk. Brooksandkirk.co.uk. https://brooksandkirk.co.uk/understanding-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-in-education/

Cobb, J. (2020, May 27). Effective Strategies for Teaching Adult Learners. Learning Revolution. https://www.learningrevolution.net/strategies-for-teaching-adult-learners/

Colman, H. (2024, November 11). Adult learning theories: Everything you need to know. Ispringsolutions. https://www.ispringsolutions.com/blog/adult-learning-theories

Google. (2025). Gemini. https://gemini.google.com/app

Johnson, M., & Majewska, D. (2022). Formal, non-formal, and informal learning: What are they, and how can we research them? Cambridge University Press & Assessment Research Report. https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.110841

McLeod, S. (2025, October, 23). Maslow’s Hiearchy of Needs. SimplyPsychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

Pappas, C. (2013, May 9). The Adult Learning Theory-Androgogy-of Malcolm Knowles. eLearning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-malcolm-knowles

Pappas, C. (2021, May 21). 8 Important Characteristics of Adult Learners. eLearning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/8-important-characteristics-of-adult-learners

Pappas, C. (2025, May 17). 18 Tips to Engage and Inspire Adult Learners. eLearning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/tips-engage-inspire-adult-learners

Roeueche, S. (Ed.). (2007, February 9). 30 Things We Know for Sure About Adult Learning. NISOD Innovation Abstracts, 29(4), https://www.muskegoncc.edu/Include/CTL%20DOCS/XXIX_No4.p

The Super Six Principles of Andragogy-Take Your Program from Good to Great. (n.d.) The Institute for the Professional Development of Adult Educators. https://www.floridaipdae.org/dfiles/resources/webinars/033022/Webinar_Handbook_033022.pdf

Thompson, P. (2017). Foundations of Educational Technology. Oklahoma State University. https://open.library.okstate.edu/foundationsofeducationaltechnology/

Trest, J. (2023, February 6). Adult Learning Strategies: Key Features to Incorporate. Inspired ELearning. https://inspiredelearning.com/blog/adult-learning-strategies/

Unit 6: Andragogy

Overview

Just as pedagogy seeks to explain how children learn, andragogy aims to demonstrate how adults learn (Pappas, 2013). Malcolm Knowles identified five assumptions that set adult learners apart from children:

Adult learners are more self-directed and require autonomy and control because their sense of self-concept is more developed as they mature.

Adult learners are more intrinsically motivated.

Adults bring a lifetime of experience that shapes knowledge transfer and serves as a resource for learning.

Adult learners seek real-world relevance linked to their developmental tasks in their professional and social roles.

Adults' learning orientation is problem-centered and focused on immediate application, rather than on memorization and recall.​

​(Pappas,213; the Super Six Principles, n.d.; Thompson, 2017)

Key Contributors

Implications On Insturctional (Learning) Design

Some considerations for instructional designers include:

Build a flexible and practical course structure that fits into an adult learner's busy schedule

Tie to real-world problems into the learning scenarios and material must relate to the learners lives or jobs

Build on the learners' previous experience, not repeat it, and adapt to the myriads of learners

Create a self-paced environment

Capitalize on adult learners' emphasis on intrinsic motivation

Identify ways to link new knowledge to the learners pre-existing knowledge

Give the learners as much control over their learning experience as possible

Design must be multifaceted for different types of learners

Provide the "why" behind change and anticipate resistance to new methods

Anticipate high expectations from learners

Integrate emotionally-driven content to build an emotional connection between the material and the learner

Utilize storytelling as a method to make material interesting

Allow time for learners to process the information

Self-directed learner does not equate to isolation; incorporate chats to promote interaction

Break up information for incremental learning to avoid cognitive overload

Be aware of the learner experiencing insecurity when interacting with peers

Anticipate personality clashes between learners (Cobb, 2025; Pappas, 2013; Pappas, 2021; Pappas 2025; Roeueche, 2007; Trest, 2023)

Strengths and Limitations: Military (Marine Corps)

Part II: Prior Learning Experience

Over the span of my career, I've had ample opportunities to engage in the three types of learning, as described by Johnsonv& Majewska (2022), to include:

Highly structured formal learning (i.e., my degrees from Park University)

Organized but less structured and more flexible non-formal learning (i.e., Massive Open Online Courses offered by Coursera)

Unstructured and spontaneous informal learning (i.e., discussion forums like Jacob_PPT or watching videos posted on Instagram like Reddit)

Learners go through an experience (activities like "The Drawbridge " or others that dealt with unconscious bias, privilege, and power, and various "-isms" like sexism and racism)

Learners reconvene in a small circle, guided by facilitators, to "unpack" the experience, starting with identifying, in one word, how the learner felt during the activity.

Learners would then ask clarifying and probing questions to each other as to what made them feel that way, engaging other learners from various backgrounds

Facilitators would only pose questions when necessary or help learners correct their language.

Learners would reflect on what they learned about themselves during the activity.

Learners would conclude by connecting the activity to course material and lectures, and by making real-world connections to develop actionable plans.

Even though this experience was emotionally draining at times, it was one of the most impactful courses I've participated in throughout my career. Some of the highlights to the course:

It tied real-world application and problem-solving to both the "job" of an Equal Opportunity Advisor and personal development.

It built on learners' prior experiences while also challenging their schemas.

It incorporated a diverse group to learn from, ensuring each small group had a balanced mix of branches of service, genders, races, religions, and other demographic factors.

It explained why the institute was using that type of approach to learning.

Some of the drawbacks:

It was not truly flexible for various types of learners and was not self-paced

Due to the nature of the topics, this approach would not be as beneficial in a virtual setting

It was relatively rigid in assigning research topics and the structure of the course information

Due to the amount of content, it did not allow much time for the learners to process the

​Over time, learners took more control of the small group, relying less on the facilitators

It addressed conflict in a constructive way

It provided an avenue for applying the course materials and lecture content.

It integrated emotionally driven content to connect learners with the subjects.

Artificial Intelligence Disclosure I used Grammarly as a thought partner to assist with organization, spellchecking, and editing for clarity. All final ideas, content, and analysis are my own. I used Gemini to generate graphics throughout my website.

Click Here for References and Resources

Just as pedagogy seeks to explain how children learn, andragogy aims to demonstrate how adults learn (Pappas, 2013).

Malcolm Knowles identified five assumptions that set adult learners apart from children:

Adults' learning orientation is problem-centered and focused on immediate application, rather than on memorization and recall.

(Pappas,213; the Super Six Principles, n.d.; Thompson, 2017)

Anticipate personality clashes between learners

(Cobb, 2025; Pappas, 2013; Pappas, 2021; Pappas 2025; Roeueche, 2007; Trest, 2023)

Even though this experience was emotionally draining at times, it was one of the most impactful courses I've participated in throughout my career. Some of the highlights
to the course:

It was relatively rigid in assigning research topics and the structure of the course
information

Over time, learners took more control of the small group, relying less on the facilitators

Artificial Intelligence Disclosure
I used Grammarly as a thought partner to assist with organization, spellchecking, and editing for clarity. All final ideas, content, and analysis are my own. I used Gemini to generate graphics throughout my website.